Historical Background
Before WW II
Beginning in the late 1880s, after years of illegal immigration, more than 400,000 Japanese citizens legally immigrated to the United States and US controlled lands. There were a mix of young, ambitious persons who came to the US for an opportunity to make a quick fortune and return home and people, whose agricultural lifestyle was coming to an end in Japan; who came to the fertile lands of the US west coast and began to create a new life for themselves (Kennedy, 2001).
As the population of Japanese people living in
America grew, so did resentment against them.
In 1906, San Francisco’s Board of Education issued an order that all
Japanese students must be taught in racially segregated schools (Kennedy, 2001).
In 1913, California passed The Alien Land Law (the Webb- Heney Act), which made those people ineligible for citizenship unable to own land. This also extended to corporations whose controlling interest was owned by persons ineligible for citizenship and land bought by a citizen with money from an ineligible person (Pedersen, 2001).
As tensions and resentment continued to grow, the US Supreme Court heard a case in 1922 that would have far-reaching consequences. The case involved a Japanese citizen who had been denied citizenship and the Naturalization Act of June 29, 1906 and section 2169 of the Revised Statutes of the United States. “Section 2169 is found in title XXX of the Revised Statutes, under the heading 'Naturalization,' and reads as follows: 'The provisions of this title shall apply to aliens, being free white persons and to aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent'” (Takao Ozawa v. US, 1922).
Image from: http://media.discovernikkei.org/album/items/4/7/4718/anti-japanese_full_jpg_64x64_crop_detail_q85.jpg
In 1913, California passed The Alien Land Law (the Webb- Heney Act), which made those people ineligible for citizenship unable to own land. This also extended to corporations whose controlling interest was owned by persons ineligible for citizenship and land bought by a citizen with money from an ineligible person (Pedersen, 2001).
As tensions and resentment continued to grow, the US Supreme Court heard a case in 1922 that would have far-reaching consequences. The case involved a Japanese citizen who had been denied citizenship and the Naturalization Act of June 29, 1906 and section 2169 of the Revised Statutes of the United States. “Section 2169 is found in title XXX of the Revised Statutes, under the heading 'Naturalization,' and reads as follows: 'The provisions of this title shall apply to aliens, being free white persons and to aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent'” (Takao Ozawa v. US, 1922).
Image from: http://media.discovernikkei.org/album/items/4/7/4718/anti-japanese_full_jpg_64x64_crop_detail_q85.jpg
The final decision of the courts was that Japanese persons were not “white,” extending that label to only those of “Caucasian” descent. Therefore, they were unable to become citizens. This ruling did not extend to children born in the US, however.
“By 1920, Japanese immigrant farmers controlled more than 450,000 acres of land in California, brought to market more than 10 percent of its crop revenue, and had produced at least one American-made millionaire. Even at the peak of immigration, Japanese immigrants never made up more than a tiny percentage of the U.S. population. However, by the early years of the century, organized campaigns had already arisen to exclude Japanese immigrants from U.S. life. Sensational reports appeared in the English-language press portraying the Japanese as the enemies of the American worker, as a menace to American womanhood, and as corrupting agents in American society-in other words, repeating many of the same slanders as had been used against Chinese immigrants in the decades before” (The U.S. Mainland, n.d.)
World War II
In 1939, Germany, under Adolf Hitler's dictatorship, invaded Poland causing Great Britain and France to declare war. This was the start of World War II. Over the next 6 years, forces allied themselves on either side and the battles spread across the globe (World War II, n.d.). The United States stayed out of the direct fighting for most of this time. They did, however, supply Britain with weapons and ammo so they could fight in the war (National Archives, n.d.). The United States also worked with Britain and the Netherlands to keep Japan from getting oil, which Japan needed to continue fighting. In retaliation, Japan bombed a U.S. naval base, Pearl Harbor (Pearl Harbor, 2012).
Pearl Harbor bombing
The United States was thrown into war following the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Without any prior warning, Japanese planes bombed the navel base killing over 2,300 people. It also resulted in the loss of 21 ships and over 300 military planes setting back the effort for a counter attack. The U.S. was taken by surprise by the attack but they were quick in taking action following it. The very next day newspapers all over the country were reporting that America was officially at war with Japan. The San Francisco Chronicle reported,
“America at War!
“By the act of Japan, America is at war. The time for debate has passed and the time for action has come. That action must be united and unanimous. ‘Politics is adjourned,’ whether between parties, factions or economic groups. From now on America is an army with ever man, woman and child a soldier in in, all joined to the one end of victory… Americans, Unite!” (San Francisco Chronicle, 12-8-1942)
Before that day America was relatively untouched by the world war raging across Europe. No American city was under that threat of attack like other nations directly involved in the war. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the war was brought to them and they were committed to fighting back and protecting themselves from further attack.
After the bombing
Police and FBI forces quickly began rounding up people they suspected had something to do with the bombing. The FBI had suspected something might happen because of the war tensions so they quickly had people on the streets after the bombing. To prepare, the FBI,
“had expanded the number of professionally trained police through its National Academy program to aid the Bureau in times of crisis. This cadre of professionals effectively forestalled well-meaning but overzealous civilian plans to "help" law enforcement with vigilantism. The FBI had learned a lesson from World War I when groups like the American Protective League abused the civil rights of Americans in its efforts to identify German spies, draft resisters, and other threats.
And it had identified German, Italian, and Japanese aliens who posed a clear threat to the United States in the event of war so that when President Roosevelt ordered it—and he did, on the evening of December 7—the Bureau could immediately arrest these enemies and present them to immigration for hearings (represented by counsel) and possible deportation. A few—like Bernard Julius Otto Kuehn, the German national involved in signaling the Japanese invasion fleet headed for Pearl Harbor—were arrested and prosecuted for espionage and other crimes against the U.S.” (A byte out of history, 2003).
Withing 48 hours almost 2000 Japanese Issei were rounded up by the FBI and taken away. No charges were brought up and no trial was given or needed due to an order President gave stating that the Japanese were enemy aliens. Issei translates literally to 'first generation' but means they were born in Japan and moved to United States (Internment History, n.d.). Issei were said to have no ties of loyalty to the United States and had the greatest potential to be spies (The Munson report, 1941).
War Propaganda
During World War II, the use of propaganda by all countries
involved was very common. In the United
Sates, anti-Japanese propaganda was common connecting Japanese forces with
Nazis and other “enemy” forces. However,
after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the use of anti-Japanese propaganda for the
war effort often fueled the anti-Japanese flames in the Western states. They were often depicted as evil (as in the picture below) or as spies (as in the picture to the right). This incited fear in the public and contributed to the hatred of Japanese that lived as loyal citizens within the country (Miles, 2012). Here are a couple examples of propaganda that show the negative stereotyping of Japanese persons.
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Image on left from: http://artifactsjournal.missouri.edu/2012/03/wwii-propaganda-the-influence-of-racism/ Image on right from: http://www.crazywebsite.com/Free-Galleries-01/USA_Patriotic/pg-WWII_Posters_ Vintage/WWII_Posters_Safety_Security_Loose_Talk_Open_Trap_Happy_Jap _1_jpg.htm |